Impacts of Xenophobia and Nativism on Pan-Africanism in Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean

: Xenophobia and Nativism are among the main obstacles that are beleaguering Africa’s unity a nd progress. The early African leaders, particularly, during decolonisation process, nursed and developed an ambitious strategy of coordination and cooperation by designing a platform of uniting all black race across the world. Unfortunately, misrule, misgovernance and myriads of political and socioeconomic issues strangled the Pan-African Movement. This is perceived in terms of the upheavals in Xenophobia and Nativism across the three Continents. This study examined the impacts of Xenophobia and Nativism on the Pan-African movement in Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America. The study is a descriptive theoretical and also an empirical analysis of the causes, manifestations and effects of Xenophobia on a universal declaration of the black world unity taking the three continents which have an umbilical cord of fraternal ancestry. A qualitative phenomenological paradigm was used in data collection and analysis. Documented sources including books, journal articles, reports, media and internet sources were consulted while thematic content analysis was deployed for analysis. The study explored some groundbreaking issues and emerging ones on the role played by Xenophobia and Nativism in hindering the successful movement and expansion of Pan-Africanism across Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America. A comparative nature and dimension of the issues were discovered across the three case studies. Practical policy implications were presented on how to surmount the challenge and propel ahead for a most workable Pan-Africanism and by extension, for universal prosperity of the black nations in the 21st century and beyond.

play on the emotion of their audience in their quest for power. Hervik (2016) believed that while Nativism and Xenophobia are closely tied, they differ in their origin and nature. Both Xenophobia and Nativism are exclusionist ideologies perceived by their perpetrators to have been a measure of protection of a culture but the former is targeted at the external group while the latter is inflicted upon minority natives. Hervik (2016) presented Islamophobia as a new form of Xenophobia in Europe and America and he suggests that it is a kind of new Racism in modern times. A new dimension that was added in the literature on Xenophobia is that of Xun and Gilman (2021) that pandemic rekindles Xenophobia in the 21 st century. This is because, in their view, pandemics reactivate a fear of foreigners and certain groups particularly from the areas of origin of the pandemic. Chinese are stereotyped in the outbreak of the COVID-19 Virus and other countries that are devastated by the pandemic are also perceived with the same fear. This necessitated the banning of many foreigners by nation-states from 2020 to date and other measures for prevention and also for the inflicted fear.
Globally, Xenophobia and Nativism were recorded and it has to explode. In the 21 st century, the outburst of Xenophobia was recorded in the pre-Second World War with anti-Semitism in Germany. The phenomenon continued up to the period of the division of Germany into East and West but most importantly, it continued even in the post-unification era (Kurthen et al., 1997). The scenarios that trigger Xenophobia in one society differ from others. For instance, in Brazil, the resentment of Portuguese post-colonial immigrants was the major factor because the Brazilians quickly recall the colonial trauma inflicted by the Portuguese during colonialism (Barbosa, 2009). Nativism is the causal factor in Hungary because the Hungarians see Budapest as the Capital city meant only for the Hungarians due to symbols, rhetoric and images that they felt represented them (Eros, 2014). In the case of Norway, ideational Nativism, extremism of the populist and hatred of strangers propel Xenophobia (Auestad, 2014). Populism orchestrated anti-immigrant sentiments in Poland leading to Xenophobia (Wrobel, 2014) while the trauma of post-Colonialism and phantasy breed Xenophobia in Mexico (Davidoff, 2014). In India, Xenophobia is taking the shape of Nativism where the minority is facing class difference, ethnicity, language, race, culture and social status which is sometimes staged into violence and deprivation (Kruijtzer, 2009). An attempt at shifting toward secularism established the re-emergence of Xenophobia in Canada, Spain, Ireland, Belgium and many other European countries (Todd, 2015). This is aided by the intensified efforts at In the discourse of contemporary Xenophobia, America represents the epitome of events and sequence of activities toward that perspective. Various indigenous minorities such as Blacks, Afro-Asians, West Indies and Japanese faced different kinds of Nativism in America while immigrants faced xenophobic attacks verbally and physically (Lee, 2019). In the US, discrimination based on religion, sex, colour, race, and other components are Ricans (Capielo et al., 2018) and Venezuelan diaspora in the US (Cadenas, 2018). In Africa, South Africa is the epicentre of xenophobic attacks. This is not to exonerate other African countries from it particularly. Nativism has led to several civil wars in Congo (1993Congo ( -1994, Nigeria (1967Nigeria ( -1970, Rwanda (1990Rwanda ( -1994 and others.
However, in modern times, the South African context is the most pronounced. The South African incidence is

Impacts of Xenophobia and Nativism on Pan Africanism in the 21st Century
Pan-Africanism strives to unite all Black race in the world beyond geographical, ethnic, religious, and other societal demarcation through a uniform culture of recognition. Interestingly, this great movement was initiated in Latin America, the Caribbean and the US in the 19 th century during the heat of slavery and the peak of colonisation. Some Africans in diaspora, Afro-Americans and Americans established the movement which ambitiously proposed to achieve this great feat through unity (Abidde, 2021). Pan-Africanism emerged at the end of the 19 th century as an idea and activity as a response to slavery, imperialism, colonialism and racism. The early Pan-Africanist such as Edward Blyden, Marcus Garvey and W.E.B Du Bois identified four key strategic programmes of action as follows: i. Pan-Africanism as a universal expression of Black pride and achievement; ii.
Pan-Africanism as a policy of returning Africans in the diaspora back to their native land; iii. Pan-Africanism as a harbinger of liberation and iv. Pan-Africanism as a political unification of the Continent (David, 2013). Pan-Africanism is a nursed dream for Africa and Africans in the diaspora, a movement that emanated from the diaspora that later influenced the indigenous Africans to first, struggled for independence and then in the 1950s and 1960s, to strive towards achieving African universal unity as inspired by the early Pan-Africanist. Pan-Africanist believed that there is a compelling need for African unity, common goals, common history, a common culture and common values for the Africans and Africans in the diaspora with interconnected destinies (Wapmuk, 2021).
Pan-Africanism is envisaged by many famous African leaders and scholars to have challenges that may impede its success and existence. Nkrumah, the first Ghanaian President stressed that 'Neocolonialism' will be strong opposition to African unity, progress, economic buoyancy and political development (Mazrui, 1986).   Hence, this chapter believed that Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean have the potential for achieving a long-lasting unity that will usher a sustainable development in the trio continents if Pan-Africanism is revived and this is not possible until Xenophobia and Nativism are effectively checked to restore the spirit of brotherhood and universal common objectives for the Black Race. One of the recommendations is for the AU to initiate strict measures and laws that will deter xenophobic attacks among African countries through severe sanctions as punishment. The Latin American and the Caribbean should initiate and reactivate the historical unity with Africa through an increased trade relationship and political alliance. The duo of Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean should strive to establish parallel organisations akin to UN and IMF with the alliance of Asian powerful economies to ward off the unjust domination of the Western world that is creating such economic conditions that cause xenophobic attacks and other conflicts. Additionally, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean should design a cultural curriculum in their basic education and even advanced studies on the essence of inculcating the spirit of Pan-Africanism to the younger generation to grow up with the psychological notion of the established universal unity and brotherhood.

Funding
No funding is reported for this study. It is a collective personal sacrifice of the authors and the magnanimity of the Journal managers.